EVOLUTION OF THE HINDU DHARMA

The evolution of Hindu Dharmamay be divided into three periods: the ancient (6500 BC-1000 AD), the medieval (1000-1800 AD) and the modern (1800 AD to present).

The Ancient Period is characterised by the worship of Shiva (Pashupati) during the Harappan times; the composition of the early Rig Vedic hymns; the Epic Period during which the Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed; period of Sage Vishvamitra, in whose reign a majority of the Vedic hymns were composed; the Yajur and Atharva Vedas were composed around 2400 BC; the Bhagwad Gita was compiled between BC 500-200; Nyaya, Sankhya, and Brahma Sutras were recorded, which later gave birth to six popular schools of Hindu philosophy and final versions of Puranas, Tantras and other sectarian literature were developed (200-750 AD). Development of six popular schools of religious thought, establishment of Shankara's Advaita Vedanta and the decline of Buddhism are the main landmarks of this period (750-1000 AD).

The Medieval Period saw the rise of devotional movements led by Ramanuja, Ramananda, Tukaram, Guru Nanak, Surdas, Chaitanya, Mirabai, Tulsi Das and many other saints.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The foundation of the Bhakti Movement was laid in South India between the 7th and 12th century AD. Several factors favoured the rise of Bhakti Movement: (a) Hinduism became more ritualistic and dogmatic and was ridden by caste system, which alienated the lower castes; (b) Both Buddhism and Jainism preached extreme austerities and had gradually lost their charm; (c) With the advent of Islam in India, the Sufi saints preached the idea of equality and brotherhood; (d) People were interested in religious thoughts that could satisfy their reason and emotions.

The Bhakti Movement of South India was led by a series of popular saints Nayanars (Shaiviites) and Alvars (Vaishnavites), who disregarded the austerities preached by Jainism and Buddhism but instead preached personal devotion to God as a means of salvation. These saints, some of whom were also women, spoke and wrote in local languages like Tamil and Telugu and travelled widely to spread their message of love and devotion to everyone, irrespective of caste, colour and creed. The Bhakti saints belonged either to the traditional Saguna School, which believed in the existence of God in many forms and attributes like Rama and Krishna, or the new Nirguna School, which followed from the Vedanta philosophy and believed that God has no attributes. Ramanuja gave the Bhakti Movement a new meaning and helped it in its spread to other parts of India during the 12th century AD. At the same time, Basava and his nephew Channabasava founded the Lingayat or Vir Shaiva Movement in Karnataka. The Lingayats, who were worshippers of Shiva, strongly opposed the caste system and rejected fasts, feasts, pilgrimages and sacrifices. They tried to bring about a reform in the Hindu social order by opposing child marriage and encouraging widow re-marriages. Ramanuja founded the Visistadvaita philosophy. His Sirbhasya, containing a commentary on the Vedanta, and the Gitabhasya are great masterpieces. Other philosophies that came into being were Dualism expounded by Madhavacharya, Dvaitadvaitavada (dualistic monism) expounded by Madhavacharya and the Suddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) propounded by Vallabha.

The spread of Bhakti Movement from south to north India was a long-drawn process. Namdev (first part of 14th century) and Ramananda (second half of 14th century) were the earliest Bhakti saints to spread their ideas to the north. Ramananda, who was a follower of Ramanuja, was born at Prayag (Allahabad). He preached the doctrine of Bhakti in Hindi to people of all the four Varnas. He substituted the worship of Rama in place of Vishnu. Kabir (1398-1518 AD) was the most renowned disciple of Ramananda and belonged to the Nirguna School of Bhakti. He emphasised on the unity of God, whom he called by many names. He denounced caste system, untouchability, idol worship, pilgrimages and other rituals. He rejected those principles from Hinduism and Islam which were of no significance in attaining real spiritual knowledge. His dohas are still chanted widely in India. Other important saints of the Nirguna School include Guru Nanak, Baba Farid, Baba Malukadasa, Baba Dharinidasa and Garibadasa. Guru Nanak also laid emphasis on one God and advocated the purity of character and conduct as the conditions for approaching God. He stressed on the need for a spiritual guru for guidance. His teachings gave birth to a new religion called Sikhism.

The Saguna school of Bhakti developed in the North India around the worship of Rama and Krishna, the two incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Tulsidas, Surdas, Mira Bai and Chaitanya were the most renowned saints of this school. Tulsidas (1532-1623 AD) composed the Ramacharitamanas in Hindi, which described the episodes from the life of Lord Rama. He also wrote the Vinayapatrika. Surdas (1483-1563 AD) narrated the childhood escapades of Krishna and his love for Radha in his book Sursagar. Mira Bai (1498-1546 AD) was an ardent devotee of Krishna and worshipped Him as her lover and real husband. Chaitanya (1486-1533 AD) epitomised the love between Radha and Krishna and spread the message of Raga-Marga. He popularised Kirtan as a form of devotional music. The other important Bhakti saints of this school were Sankaradeva in Assam, Janadeva in Maharashtra, Narsinha Mehta in Gujarat, Namdev, Tukaram, Eknath and Ramadasa. All these saints remained within the broad framework of Hinduism. Their philosophic beliefs were a brand of Vedantic monoism, which emphasised on the fundamental unity of God and the created world.

MODERN HINDU RENAISSANCE

The Modern Hindu Renaissance (1800 AD - Present) witnessed the emergence of many social and religious vices in the Hindu society in India. Many leaders, saints, scholars, social and religious reformers came up on to the scene and tried to bring the society back into the tradition of Hindu Dharma. This was the period when social reform movements like Raja Ram Mohan Roy's Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Swami Dayanand Saraswati's Arya Samaj and other such movements became very strong. Mrs. Annie Besant (1847-1933), an Englishwoman, translated and popularized the Bhagwad Gita, and established the Hindu College in Benaras, now known as the Benaras Hindu University. Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886 AD), a famous sage of modern times, infused the true spirit of Hindu Dharma into his followers. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) elucidated Hindu Dharma within and outside India and introduced the Vedanta philosophy to the West. Sri Aurobindo Ghose (1872-1950) eloquently interpreted the basic concepts of the Hindu Dharma and expounded the yoga philosophy for the transformation of human consciousness. Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941), one of the greatest mystical poets of the world, expounded the Upanishadic philosophy through his songs in Gitanjali and in many of his other works. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) extended non-violence, a Hindu cardinal virtue, to social, national and international affairs. Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975), a philosopher, statesman, and the second President of India, interpreted the classical Hindu philosophy in the context of the modern world through his numerous scholarly works, such as Hindu View of Life.

BRAHMO SAMAJ

The Brahma Samaj was a theistic organisation founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, an educated Bengali, at Calcutta in 1828. It was initially known as the "Brahmo Sabha". Two factors contributed to the formation of the Brahmo Samaj during the 19th century. Firstly the Hindu social system had begun to stagnate and placed too much emphasis on traditional rituals. Secondly, an English educated class of Indians began to emerge to fulfill the administrative and economic needs of British rule.

Fundamental Principles:

The fundamental principles of the Brahmo Samaj are:(1) There is only one God, who is the Creator and the Saviour of this world. He is spirit, infinite in power, wisdom, love, justice and holiness, omnipresent, eternal and blissful. (2) The human soul is immortal and capable of infinite progress, and is responsible to God for its doings. (3) Man's happiness in this and the next world consists in worshipping God in spirit and in truth. (4) Loving God, holding communion with Him and carrying out His will in all the concerns of life, constitute true worship. (5) No created object is to be worshipped as God, and God alone is to be considered as infallible.

To this, Raja Ram Mohan Roy added:

"the true way of serving God is to do good to man." Since no one person is considered to be infallible, the Brahmos hold all the great religious leaders of the world in respect, and believe that truth is to be gleaned from all the scriptures of the world. To that extent, the Brahmo religion is truly eclectic. Universalist in nature, it is "dogmatically un-dogmatic". The Brahmo Samaj rejected idol worship and the worship of multiple gods and goddesses of the traditional Hindu beliefs. It sought to purge Hinduism of its social evils by advocating the teachings of Vedas and Upanishads. The Brahmo Samaj has played a significant role in the renaissance of India, and the roots of much of the modern thinking in India can be traced back to the Brahmo movement. After initially evolving in India, the Brahmo religion is now practised in many parts of the world.

Divisions in the Brahmo Samaj:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was much influenced by the Western thought, especially Christianity. He was one of the first Hindus to visit Europe, where he was much admired by the intellectuals. After the death of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Brahmo Samaj got divided into many sects. Debendranath Tagore (Father of Rabindranath Tagore) took an active interest in the Brahmo Samaj and began to transform the Brahmo Samaj into a spiritual fraternity. He established the Adi Brahmo Samaj and formulated the "Brahmo-upasana" which was a set of readings from the Upanishads. Debendranath Tagore's successor was Keshab Chandra Sen. He sought to incorporate Christian ideals into the Brahmo Samaj movement. He began the compilation of a scripture including passages from the Holy Books of many religions - Hindu, Buddhist, Christian and Muslim. He founded the Bharitiya Brahmo Samaj or the Naba Bidhan Samaj. Another split took place in the Brahmo Samaj in May 1878 when the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj was founded by Pandit Shivanath Shastri, owing to differences with Keshab Chandra Sen. Eventually these three were united to form the "Brahmo Sammilan Samaj" and a "mandir" was built in Bhowanipur, Calcutta, which celebrated its centenary in 1997.

Prominent Brahmo Samajis:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshad Chandra Sen, Jagdish Chandra Bose, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, Satyajit Ray, Rabindranath Tagore, Debendranath Tagore and Amartya Sen.

PRARTHANA SAMAJ

Prarthana Samaj, founded by R.G.Bhandarkar and M.G.Ranade in Bombay in 1867, was an offshoot of the Brahmo Samaj. Like Brahmo Samaj, it also preached worship of one god and tried to free religion from various evils like caste system and dominance of priests. The other persons who worked for promoting the principles of the Prarthana Samaj include Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and Kandukuri Veerasalingam.

ARYA SAMAJ

Arya Samaj was founded in 1875 at Bombay by Swami Dayanand Saraswati to move the Hindu Dharma away from all the factitious beliefs and to go back to the teachings of Vedas. The goal of the Arya Samaj is Krinvanto Vishvam Aryam i.e. to Make This World Noble. Arya Samaj started the Suddhi Movement to reconvert the Christians and others into Hinduism.

Fundamental Principles of Arya Samaj:

There are ten fundamental principles of Arya Samaj which include (1) Believe in one Supreme God. (2) God is personification of Existence, Intelligence and Bliss. He is Formless, Almighty; Just, Benevolent, Unborn, Endless and Infinite (3) The Vedas are the scriptures of true knowledge and are the words of God. (4) Embrace truth and forsake untruth (5) Righteousness, (6) Benevolence (7) Love and Justice (8) To dispel avidya (nescience) and promote vidya (science), both spiritual and physical. (9) Promoting good of all and (10) Subordination and Liberty.

The Arya Samaj organization is live and sound in all parts of the world. Arya Samaj has branches in countries around the world including United States, Canada, Guyana, Surinam, Trinidad, Mexico, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, South Africa, Malawi, Mauritius, Pakistan, Burma, Thailand, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Australia.

Prominent Arya Samajis:

Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Shradhanand, Acharya Ram Dev, Pandit Guru Dutt Vidyarthi and Lala Lajpat Rai.

RAMKRISHNA MISSION

The Ramkrishna Mission was inaugurated by Swami Vivekananda(1863-1902) in 1897 to spread the message and teachings of his spiritual guru, the famous Bhakti saint Ramkrishna Paramhansa. One of the major aims for establishing the Ramkrishna Mission was the spread of the universal message of the Vedanta and the revival of Hinduism. In 1894 Swami Vivekananda attended the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago and became famous by his eloquent defence of Hinduism. In 1897 he established Mats or monasteries named after Ramakrishna for religious meditation. Vivekanda was very modern in his outlook and denounced untouchability, poverty and suppression of women. He condemned the caste system and undue emphasis on rituals and ceremonies. He welcomed the knowledge of science and said that it does not contradict religion. His teachings inspired courage, confidence and national pride among the Hindus.

THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

The Theosophical Society was first formed in the United States by Madame H.P.Blavatsky, a Russian lady, and Colonel H.S.Olcott, an American military officer. They came to India and were inspired by the Hindu philosophy and Hindu scriptures. They formed the headquarters of Theosophical Society in India in 1886 at Adyar in Madras. The Theosophical Society became very popular in India under Mrs Annie Besant, an Irish lady, who came to India in 1893. She established the central Hindu College at Benaras, which later developed into the Hindu University.

CASTE MOVEMENTS

Ezhava Movement:

This movement was started in the early 20th century by the untouchable castes of Kerala called Ezhavas, under the leadership of Narayan Guru, to fight against the caste system.

Justice Movement:

It was an intermediate caste movement launched in Madras around 1915-16 by C.N.Mudaliar, T.M.Nair and P.Thyagaraja on behalf of Intermediate castes like Mudaliars, Chettairs, Reddys, Kammas and Nairs to counter the Brahimin predominance in different fields.

Mahar Movement:

This movement was started by Dr B.R.Ambedkar in late 1920s for the upliftment of the untouchable Mahar castes of Maharashtra.

Satyasodhak Movement:

This movement was started by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra in 1873 to "save the lower castes from the hypocritical Brahmins and their opportunistic scriptures".

Self-Respect Movement:

This radical movement was started by E.V.Ramaswamy ('Periyar') in 1925 in Madras against the Brahmin domination.