HINDUISM

Hinduism is also referred as Vaidika Dharma, meaning "religion of the Vedas," in the ancient Hindu scriptures. Hinduism is not strictly a religion. It is based on the practice of Dharma, the code of life. The original name of Hindu Dharma is Sanatana Dharma, or "universal religion." The underlying tenets of Hinduism cannot be easily defined. Unlike other religions, Hindu Dharma did not originate from a single person, a single book, or at a single point in time. The foundations of this oldest surviving religion were laid by ancient rishis (sages), who taught their disciples the eternal principles of life they had discovered through their meditations. Hindu Dharma is essentially a religion of principles rather than persons. Since Hinduism has no founder, anyone who practices Dharma can call himself a Hindu. Statistically, there are over 700 million Hindus, concentrated mainly in India and Nepal.

FUNDAMENTALS OF HINDUISM

Hindu religious thought is based upon the belief in the Ultimate Reality (Brahman of the Upanishads), faith in the reality of the spirit (atman), and faith in the spiritual order of the world. The Rig Veda, the oldest Hindu scripture says: "Ekam sat vipraha, bahudha vadanti", meaning "Truth is one, the wise call it by various names." This doctrine recognizes that the Ultimate Reality possesses infinite potential, power and intelligence, and therefore cannot be limited by a single name or form. Thus, Hindus view the Ultimate Reality as having two aspects: impersonal and personal. The impersonal aspect of the Ultimate Reality is called Nirguna Brahman in Hindu scriptures. Nirguna Brahman has no attributes and, as such, is not an object of prayer but of meditation and knowledge. This aspect of the Ultimate Reality is beyond conception, beyond reasoning and beyond thought. The personal aspect of the Ultimate Reality is known as Saguna Brahman, that is Brahman with attributes. Saguna Brahman is the creator, sustainer and controller of the universe. Saguna Brahman cannot be limited by one form and is therefore worshipped by Hindus in both male and female forms. As the male aspect, Saguna Brahman is called by various Sanskrit names, such as Ishvara, Parameshvara, Paramãtma, Maheshvara and Purusha. These Sanskrit names represent more or less the same concept as the word God in other religions. As the female aspect, Hindus refer to Saguna Brahman by various names, such as Divine Mother, Durga and Kali. Hindus further worship the male and female aspects of Saguna Brahman in many forms, called deities.

Hindu scriptures teach that an individual is essentially atman clothed in a physical body. The Sanskrit word atman, meaning "God within," is usually translated as soul, self or spirit. In a human body atman is the source of the mind, intellect and ego sense. Hindu scriptures declare that atman is immortal and divine. In Hindu view, therefore, an individual is potentially divine and eternally perfect. There are two states of existence associated with atman, the bound state and the liberated state. In the bound state, atman is associated with a physical body. As a result of this association, atman is subject to maya, which causes it to forget its true divine nature and commit evil deeds in the world. In the liberated state, atman is said to have attained moksha (spiritual perfection) and consequently enjoys union with God.

Hindus declare that there is only one Supreme Being and He is the God of all religions. Hindus view cosmic activity of the Supreme Being as comprised of three tasks: creation, preservation, and dissolution and recreation. Hindus associate these three cosmic tasks with the three deities, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Lord Brahma brings forth the creation and represents the creative principle of the Supreme Being. Lord Vishnu maintains the universe and represents the eternal principle of preservation. Lord Shiva represents the principle of dissolution and recreation. These three deities together form the Hindu Trinity. One must clearly understand that Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are not three independent deities. They represent the same power (the Supreme Being), but in three different aspects. "The oneness of the three gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva is brought out by the mystic symbol AUM (OM) where 'A' represents Vishnu, 'U' Shiva and 'M' Brahma." The Supreme Being or God, the personal form of the Ultimate Reality, is conceived by Hindus as having various aspects. A Hindu deity represents a particular aspect of the Supreme Being. The Hindu worship of deities can be described as monotheistic polytheism and not simple polytheism.

There are many ways of conceiving the Supreme Reality (Brahman) and numerous ways of approaching it. God is the source of goodness and truth. Man's goal in life is to seek union with Him. This union can be sought in many ways, all requiring sincerity of purpose, self-sacrifice and discipline. The highest religious experience is the one in which an individual transcends the intellect and realizes God immediately. There is natural order (rita) inherent in the natural world. There must be moral order (dharma) inherent in human life. Everyone must be responsible for one's actions and their consequences (karma). Individual responsibility and one's ethics are a foundation for individual happiness and social stability. The universe is a wheel of sacrifice (yajna). At the beginning the Supreme Lord performed self-sacrifice to create the universe and set the wheel in motion. There is no intrinsic evil in Nature nor is there any evil force in the world which opposes God. Man commits evil only due to his own ignorance (maya).

POPULAR SYSTEMS OF HINDU RELIGIOUS THOUGHT

Hindu religious thought embodies a variety of ideas, principles and practices, giving rise to various religious schools (sampradayas). Each school venerates the Supreme Deity, which represents a particular aspect of the Ultimate Reality (Brahman). Each school has temples, guru lineages, religious leaders, pilgrimage centers, monastic communities and sacred literature. Some of these schools hold such divergent views that each appears to be a complete religion in itself. Yet, they all believe in the central doctrines of Hindu religion, such askarma, dharma,reincarnation, divinity of the atman, sacraments, deity worship,guru-shishya (teacher-disciple) tradition and the scriptural authority of the Vedas. None of these schools is in any way superior or inferior to the others. They simply represent different ways of approach to the same goal and are meant for various classes of people having different tastes, aptitudes, temperaments, and exhibiting various levels of spiritual development.

VEDANTA

The science of Vedanta is enshrined in the original spiritual texts of India. It is founded on the authority of the Upanishads, the Bhagwad Gita and the Brahmasutram of Badrayana Vyasa. Vedanta brings out the mystical, ethical and metaphysical aspects of philosophy. The abiding knowledge of Vedanta rests in the vision of the One Reality, a vision that transcends race, class, creed, gender and nationality. Vedanta is the one principle of truth encompassing all religions. There are three different philosophies on this concept. Advaita (non-duality) implies that there is an identity of Brahman and Jiva atmanwhile Dvaita (duality) differs from Advaita and maintains an ultimate diversity between Brahman and Jiva atman.Visistadvaita (qualified non-duality) maintains a crucial differentiation as well as a fundamental identity. Advaita is the oldest extant school of Vedanta founded by Adi Shankaracharya. Advaita asserts that the real, essential identity of the jiva, the individual self, is nothing other than Brahman itself. It asserts that Brahman, the 'impersonal' God and the universal soul, is the Absolute Truth. Brahman has multiple roles to play: the creator, the maintainer, and the destroyer all in one. The teaching follows from the statements of the Upanishads (Mahavakyas) like tat tvam asiand aham brahmasmi. It is in this cardinal doctrine thatAdvaita differs from all other schools of Vedanta.

The Visishtadvaita philosophy was expounded by Sri Ramanuja. According to this desirable qualities viz.,satyam, jnanam and anandam.The main exponent of theDvaita philosophy was Sri Madhava (Purnaprajna). It says that the supreme goal of life is service of god.

Other systems which are not quite popular as the above mentioned philosophies includeDvaitadvaita (dual-non-dual doctrine), Suddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) and Acinntyaa bhedabheda (oneness and difference) were expounded by Nimbarka, Vallabha and Vidyabhusana respectively. All the above philosophers have written commentaries on thePrasthana-traya (triple canon) of the Vedanta, which are theUpanishads, Brahma sutra and the Bhagwad Gita.

The Hindu religious systems have been classified by Adi Shankaracharya into six major paths, called Shad-maths. These are Shaivism,Vaishnavism, Shaktism,Ganapathyam, Kaumaram, andSauram or Jyotiam.

SHAIVISM

The followers of Shaivism venerate the Ultimate Reality as Lord Shiva. This tradition has been traced back by scholars to the Indus Valley Civilization. The archeologists have discovered the so-called proto-Pashupati seals of thiscivilization, which depict Shiva as LordPashupati, seated in a yogic pose. There are many schools of Shaivism, of which the six major systems are Shaiva Siddhanta,Pashupata Shaivism, KashmirShaivism, Vîra Shaivism,Siddha Siddhanta and Shiva Advaita. These systems differ somewhat in their doctrines pertaining to the relationship between Shiva, the Atman and the world.

Most Hindus worship Lord Shiva as a member of the Hindu Trinity. However, the followers of Shaivism, called Shaivas orShaivites, worship Him as the Ultimate Reality. The predominant philosophy of Shaivism is monistic-theism. According to this doctrine, Lord Shiva is both personal and impersonal. In the personal aspect, Shiva creates, controls and pervades all that exists. In this aspect, Shiva is what other religions call God. Shaivism declares that there is nothing outside Shiva and, thus, recognizes the oneness of Pati-pau-pasa (God- Atman-World). In the impersonal aspect, Shiva transcends all existence and in the liberated state the Atman is one with Shiva.

The main objects of Shiva worship are shivalinga and images of Shiva. The lingasymbolizes both the creative and destructive power of the Lord and great sanctity is attached to it by the devotees. The banalingas are very sacred objects of worship to the followers of Shaivism. These are the elliptical stones of a special kind found in the bed of the river Narmada, one of the seven sacred rivers in India. Fresh flowers, pure water, young sprouts of Kusha(a holy grass) and durva(called bent or panic grass), fruit, bilva leaves and sun-dried rice are used in the ritual part of the Shiva worship. According to tradition, offering leaves of the bilva tree (wood-apple) is considered very auspicious for the worship of Lord Shiva. Mahashivaratri(the great night of Shiva) is an annual festival that falls on the fourteenth day of the dark fortnight of Phalguna(February-March), and is dedicated to the worship of Lord Shiva. In mythology, Shiva is the husband of Parvati, the daughter of the Himalayas. They have two sons, Ganesha and Karttikeya and a daughter Jyoti. Their residence is the snow-clad mountain Kailash. The mythology depicts Shiva both as God of terror as well as benevolence. His five powers are revealment (offering grace to the devotees), concealment (obscuring by His power ofmaya), creation, preservation and dissolution. The major scriptures of Shaivism are Vedas, Shaiva Agamas and Shaiva Puranas.

VAISHNAVISM

Vaishnavism venerates the Ultimate Reality as Lord Vishnu. This tradition began during the Vedic period when its earliest schools Pancharatra andBhagavata became popular around 300 BC. Modern day Vaishnavism includes five popular schools founded by Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Chaitanya. Most Hindus worship Lord Vishnu as a member of the Hindu Trinity. However, the followers of Vaishnavism, called Vaishnavasor Vaishnavites, worship Lord Vishnu as the Ultimate Reality. Although the philosophy of Vaishnavism includes dualism of Madhva, qualified dualism of Ramanuja, and nearly monistic views of Vallabha, the predominant philosophy of Vaishnavism is dualism. According to this doctrine, there are two categories of the Ultimate Reality. Lord Vishnu as personal God is the Absolute Reality, and theAtmans (individuals souls) are the relative realities, eternally distinct from each other and Lord Vishnu, but dependent on Him. The doctrine of incarnation (avatara) is fundamental to all Hindus, especially to Vaishnavas. Lord Vishnu assumed each avatarafor a particular end and as the situation demanded. The number of avataras of Lord Vishnu is generally accepted to be ten, with Rama and Krishna being the two most popular among Hindus.

Vaishnavism stresses on complete surrender (prapatti) to Lord Vishnu and His incarnations and advocates devotion (bhakti) as the highest spiritual discipline. The objects of worship are the images of Lord Vishnu and His incarnations, and salagramas, small stones of different colors (predominantly black) recovered from the bed of the river Gandaki, one of the tributaries of the Ganges river in India. Fresh flowers, water, fruits and leaves of the tulasiplant are used in the ritual part of the worship of Lord Vishnu and His incarnations. One of the unique features of the Vaishnava worship is kirtana, which consists of choral singing of the names and deeds of Lord Vishnu and His incarnations, accompanied by drums and cymbals and synchronized with rhythmic bodily movements. The major scriptures of Vaishnavism are Vedas, Agamas, Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata and Bhagwad Gita.

SHAKTISM

Shakti means "creative energy," and Shaktism means "Doctrine of the Creative Energy." Shaktism venerates the Ultimate Reality as the Divine Mother-Shakti or Devi-of the universe.

Archeologists have recovered thousands of female statuettes at the Mehrgarh village in India, which indicate that Shakti worship existed in India as far back as 5500 BC. There are references to the female deities in the Rig Veda, including a popular Hymn to the Divine Mother, which holds special sanctity to Hindus in general and Shaktas (the followers of Shaktism) in particular. Shaktism visualises the Ultimate Reality as having two aspects, transcendent and immanent. Shiva is the transcendent aspect, the supreme cosmic consciousness, and Shakti is the supreme creative energy. Shiva and Shakti are God and God's creative energy, which are inseparably connected. Metaphorically, Shiva and Shakti is an inseparable divine couple, representing the male and female principles in creation.

Shaktism greatly resembles Shaivism, but Shiva is considered solely transcendent and is not worshipped. Like Shaivism, the goal of Shaktism is to unite with Shiva. Such unity is possible only with the grace of the Divine Mother, who unfolds as iccha shakti(the power of desire, will and love), kriya shakti (the power of action), and jnana shakti(the power of knowledge and wisdom). Within Shaktism, Shiva is the un-manifest Absolute and Shakti is the Divine Mother of the manifest creation. The Divine Mother is worshipped in both the fierce and benign forms. The fierce forms of Goddess include Kali, Durga, Chandi, Chamundi, Bhadrakali and Bhairavi. The benign forms of Goddess include Uma, Gauri, Ambika, Parvati, Maheshvari, Lalita, Lakshmi, Saraswata and Annapurna. The major scriptures of Shaktism areVedas, Shakta agamas andPuranas.

GANAPATHYAM

Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity, represents that aspect of the Ultimate Reality which removes obstacles. Hindus, therefore, invoke Lord Ganesha at the beginning of all undertakings, whether religious, spiritual or worldly, for LordGanesha removes obstacles and brings success to the enterprise. Ganesha is also called Vighneshvara, meaning "the Lord presiding over the obstacles." In the Rig Veda, Ganesha is the name ofBrihapati, the Lord of prayer (the Holy Word). In mythology Ganesha is the first son of the divine couple Shiva and Parvati. Ganapatyas, followers of Ganapathyam, venerate Lord Ganesha exclusively as the form of the Ultimate Reality (Brahman) that is accessible to the mind, senses and (through devotional practices) the heart. Ganapatyas regard Moraya Gosavi (1651 AD), the famous devotee of Ganesha, as their spiritual progenitor. Tradition holds that Moraya experienced a series of visions of Ganesha at a shrine at Moragaon, near Pune. An annual ten-day festival,Ganesha Chaturthi, is held in August-September to celebrate the birth of Ganesha. The major scriptures of this tradition are Vedas, Skanda Purana, and Mudgala Purana.

KAUMARAM

The followers of this tradition venerate Lord Karttikeya, also called by other names such as Murugan, Kumara, Skanda, Subramanya and Shanmukhanatha, as theirIshta Devata (personal-God). Lord Karttikeya represents the power of the Ultimate Reality (Brahman) that destroys ignorance, bestows divine knowledge, upholds dharma (righteousness), removes worries and strengthens human will. In popular pictures and images, Karttikeya is shown holding a spear, which symbolizes his divine power to destroy ignorance and unrighteousness. On the day of Vaikasi Vishakham in May-June, elaborate pujas and special ceremonies (abhishekam) are conducted in homes and temples in the honour of Lord Karttikeya. His protection and grace are specially invoked on the day of Skanda Shashthi, which falls on the sixth day after the new moon in October-November. In January-February, another holy festival (Tai Pusam) is celebrated in his honour. Special pujas are performed in honor of Lord Karttikeya every month on Krittika nakshatraand Shashthi, the sixth day after the new moon.

SAURAM

The power of the sun to dispel darkness, illuminate the world and nourish mankind is recognized by Hindus as an aspect of the infinite power of the Ultimate Reality (Brahman). The worship of this triple power of the Divine, symbolized by the Vedic deity Surya, the Sun-god, is called Sauram. Surya is worshipped by Hindus s an object of meditation during many physical exercises. Devout Hindus recite sacred verses selected from the epic and Puranic literature daily early in the morning before commencing the day's work. The best known of the hymns to the sun is one from Ramayana that was imparted to Rama during his battle with Ravana.

Hindus in general worship the sun every year on the seventh day after the new moon in the month that corresponds to January-February. Sacred mantras are recited for the special worship of the sun, especially on Sundays, birthdays and at other special functions. Prostrations are made to the sun after each tenth mantra until one hundred and thirty-two prostrations have been completed. These prostrations are called Surya-Namaskara.

The following most sacred Rigvedic prayer, named after its meter, is called Gayatrî, meaning "the saviour of the singer." It is considered to be the mantra of all mantras, the most potent mantra, repeated as many times as possible by Hindus daily in puja and personal chanting to venerate the sun as the Creator (Savitar). The mystic power of this mantra is so high that it is called Vedamatri, meaning "Mother of the Vedas." Gayatri Mantra is imparted to a young boy for initiation into Vedic tradition.

Yamas & Niyamas -- The Moral and Ethical Ideals of Hindus

Ethics can be described as the science of morality, and morality as the living of a virtuous life. Hindus place greater emphasis on the attitude of the mind rather than on postulation of the elaborate theories of what is right and what is wrong. Accordingly, the Hindu vision of morality and ethics is characterized by the following considerations: Ahimsa (non-injury), Satya (truthfulness),Asteya (non-stealing),Brahmacharya (controlling sex), Kshama (forgiveness),Dhriti (firmness), Daya(compassion), Arjava(honesty), Mitahara (Refrain from consuming meat), Shaucha (purity), Hri(remorse), Santosha(contentment), Dana (tithing),Astikya (faith), Pujana(worship), Shravana (hearing of scriptures), Mati (cognition),Vrata (sacred vows), Japa(chanting) and Tapas(austerity).

HINDU SCRIPTURES Hindu Scriptures are broadly classified into Shruti(meaning 'heard'), Smriti(meaning 'remembered') andnyaya (meaning 'logic') based on its origin, not on the mode of transmission. The Shrutiscriptures are of divine origin, whose truths were directly revealed to ancient rishis(sages) in their deep meditations. The Smritiscriptures are of human origin and were written to explain the Shruti writings and make them understandable and meaningful to the general population. Shruti scriptures include the four Vedas (Rig Veda, Yajurveda, Samavedaand Atharvaveda) and theBhagwad Gita, and constitute the highest religious authority in the Hindu religion. The Vedas are groups of hymns and chants containing religious and spiritual insights of the ancient sages and seers. The Rig Veda (collection of lyrics) is the oldest Vedic text and contains 1028 hymns, divided into ten mandals. The Samaveda (book of chants) consists of verses directly taken from the Rig Veda. The Yajuveda (book of sacrificial prayers) deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. In common terms there are two parts of Yajurveda: Black Yajurveda which contains the mantras (chants) and the White Yajurveda which deals with the prose of worship.Atharvaveda (book of magical formulae) contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. Each Veda consists of four parts: Samhitas (or Mantras), Brahmanas,Aranyakas and Upanishads. Samhitas are poetic compositions and hymns of supplication and incantation addressed to the deities, the symbolic representations of the Supreme Lord. The Brahmanas marked the transition from the Vedic to later Brahmanical social order. The Brahmanas deal with rules and regulations for proper performance of religious rites, rituals and ceremonies. The important Brahmanas are: Aitareya andKaushitaki (Rig Veda), Tanda-maha, Sadvinsa andJaiminiya (Sama Veda),Satapatha (Yajurveda) andGopatha Brahmana (Atharva Veda). The Satapatha Brahmana, which speaks at length about the ploughing rituals, is the most exhaustive and most important of all the Brahmanas. The Aranyakas (forest books) provide the symbolic and spiritual basis for the Brahmanas. These are the appendices to the Brahmanas and mark the transition from ritualistic to philosophical thought. The Upanishads reveal the knowledge about Brahman and are known as Vedanta, meaning "end of the Vedas". They are the concluding portions of the Vedas. There are several interpretations of the word Upanishad. According to some, it is the knowledge derived from the learned while others like Shankara interpret it as a means to destroy ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the Supreme Spirit by cutting off the bonds of worldly existence. The Upanishads form an integral part of the Vedic literature. The Upanishads form the concluding part of the Vedic literature and hence came to be known as Vedanta, the quintessence of Vedic thought, vision and wisdom. They are also called Veda Sirsha, the top ranking in the Vedic lore. Upanishads are more than 200 in number, but the more prominent and authentic among them are 108 as listed by the Muktika Upanishad which also mentions the Vedas to which these Upanishads belong. The later Upanishads do not conform to the norms laid down by ancient scripts, but glorify the various deities with Tantric and Puranic overtones. Of the 108 Upanishads listed in the Muktika, 10 belong to Rigveda, 19 to Yajurveda, 32 to Krishna Yajurveda, 16 to Samaveda and 31 to Atharvaveda. Adi Sankara commented on eleven of them quoting passages from a few other Upanishads. These Upanishads are Aitereya and Kaushitaki (pertains to Rig Veda), Chandogya and Kena (pertains to Sama Veda), Taittiriya, Katha and Svetasvatara (pertains to Yajur Veda), Brihadaranyaka and Isha (pertains to Yajur Veda) and Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya (pertains to Atharva Veda). Whereas the Upanishads represent the essence of the Vedas, the Bhagwad Gita, the most popular scripture of Hindus, contains the essence of the Upanishads. The Vedas reflect the dawn of spiritual insight while the Upanishads and the Bhagwad Gita contain the full splendour of a spiritual vision. The Vedangas and Upavedas are texts which augment the Vedas. There are six vedangas namely Siksha (pronunciation), Jyotisha (astrology), Kalpa (religious ceremonies), Nirukti (dictionary of obscure words and phrases), Chandas (prosody and verse) and Vyakarana (grammar). Jyotisha is the most famous among them. Kalpa Vedanga defines public rituals in the Srauta and Sulba sutras, domestic rites in the Grihya Sutras and religious law in the Dharma Sastras. The other Vedangas ensure the purity of mantra recitation, through knowledge of phonetics, grammar, poetry and the way of words. The five Upavedas expound profound sciences: Arthaveda unfolds statecraft; Ayurveda sets forth medicine and health; Dhanurveda discusses military science; Gandharvaveda illumines music and the arts and the Sthapatyaveda explains the Science of mechanics and architecture. The Ayurveda is derived from the Rig Veda; the Gandharvaveda is derived from the Samaveda, the Dhanurveda originated from Yajurveda and the Sthapatyaveda originated from the Atharvaveda. Smriti includes Itihasas (epics), Puranas (moral stories) and Agamas (emanated scriptures) while Vedanta-sutras (vedanta aphorisms) are classified as Nyaya. Smriti and Nyaya always agree with shruti. Agamas are rules for the ritual, rites and the worship of Gods. There are five Agamas which deal with the worship of Ganesha, Shakti, Surya, Shiva and Vishnu respectively. The Agamas, too, have ancillary texts, such as the Upagamas and Paddhatis, which elaborate the ancient wisdom. In addition, the Kama Sutras details the erotic pleasures. Shhadarshana are six systems of Indian philosophy, which were composed between the 6th and 3rdcentury BC. These Darsanas are in the form of sutras (aphorisms), which are short, definite and free from doubts. They are Jaimini's Purva Mimansa, Patanjali's Yoga, Medhatithi Gautama's Nyaya, Kanada's Vaisheshika, Vyasa's Uttar Mimansa and Kapila's Sankhya. All the six systems are written in aphorisms (sutras). Though each sutra is just a few lines, huge commentaries have been written on each one of them. The Sankhya is the oldest system and finds a mention in the Bhagwad Gita. This does not believe in God and teaches that the miseries of the world are due to the union of Purusha (man) with Prakriti (world attributes). The Nyaya School was founded by Gautama and is similar to the Greek philosophy of Aristotle. The Vaiseshika philosophy believes that the world is created from the atoms of earth, water, fire and air. The Yoga system aims at attaining Kaivalya by controlling the mind by following the 'Astanga Yoga'. The Purvamimamsa philosophy deals with the Samhitas and Brahmanas. The Sutras comprises of a manual of instructions that was created between the 7th and 2nd century. It encompasses the Vedangas, Nirkuta of Yaksha, Asthadhyayi of Panani (a book of grammar), Srauta Sutra (details of ceremonies to be practised by priests), Griha Sutra (domestic sacrifices and rites) and Dharma Sutra (customary law and practices). The Itihasas comprises of the two epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata, which are the stories of the two incarnations of Lord Vishnu, Rama and Krishna respectively. These are by far the well read and most popular among the Hindus. Ramayana was first written by Valmiki while Mahabharata was written by Sage Vyasa. The Bhagwad Gita is the epitome of the Hindu philosophy and is found in the Mahabharata. Due to its content, Bhagwad Gita is sometimes considered to be a Gito-Upanishhad. Vyasa also wrote the eighteen Puranas and eighteen sub-puranas. All Puranas emphasize on morals and is usually a story about a Hindu deity fighting for upholding these morals. There are also Kaavyas which are based on stories derived from the Itihasas and Puranas. Among them, Raghuvamsa, Meghaduta and Shakuntala are very famous. Kautilya's Arthashastra is another important book of the period. There are also Prakarana Granthas which are considered to be primers or an introduction for spiritual studies. Among them are Atma Bodha and Bhaja Govindam (also known as Moha Mudhgara). Besides the scriptures, there are stotras and bhajans (devotional songs and hymns) Among the numerous stotras, Sahasranamams (1008 names of each deity) are very famous. The Dharmashastras include Manu Smriti, Yajanavalkya, Narada, Brahaspati and Vishnu Smritis. The Manu Smriti deals with the concept of civil laws and administrative justice. It also discusses the concepts of stages and regulations of life, which is divided into four stages: Brahmacharya, Grihasharam, Vanashram and Sanyas. The Manu Smriti provides a valuable insight into the then social life. The Narada Smriti added a few modifications to the Manu Smriti regarding remarriage of women, regulation of gambling and explanation about the law of inheritance. Yajanavalkya Smriti systematizes the concept of law and all through refers to the Vedasm Vedangas and fourteen Vidayas. HINDU SCRIPTURES SUMMARIZED SRUTI (Primary Scriptures) Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur & Atharva) Include religion, philosophy, art, medicine, science, technology, language, music, etc. Bhagwad Gita A spiritual discourse between Lord Krishna and warrior Arjuna; summary of the Upanishads. SMRITI (Secondary Scriptures) Dharma Shastras (Law Codes) Manu Smriti Includes laws for individual happiness and social stability; social philosophy Artha Shastra Includes guidelines for ruling the country. Kama Shastra An ancient manual of love and pleasure. Itihasas (Epics)
Ramayana	Describes the life story of Lord Rama; a most popular instrument of religious teaching.
Mahabharata	Includes the story of the Mahabharata war. The Bhagwad Gita is a part of the Mahabharata.
Puranas	There are 18 major Puranas: six devoted to worship of Lord Shiva, six to Lord Vishnu and six to Lord Brahma
Agamas & Tantras Sectarian Scriptures.
Scriptures of the three major theological traditions: Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism
Darshanas (Manuals of Philosophy)
Brahma Sutra	Vedanta Philosophy of Sage Vyasa
Mimamsa Sutra	Philosophy of rites and rituals of Sage Jaimini
Nyaya Sutra	Logical analysis of Sage Gautama (not Buddha)
Vaisheshika Sutra	Atomic school of philosophy of Sage Kanada
Sankhya Sutras	Sankhya philosophy of Sage Kapila
Yoga Sutras	Yoga philosophy of Sage Patanjali